"Leviathan" by Thomas Hobbes: Is An Absolute Monarchy Justified?

Thomas Hobbes was a 17th-century English philosopher best known for his masterwork ‘Leviathan’ in which he uses “social contract theory” to come to a rather shocking conclusion- that we must all submit to the authority of an absolute sovereign power, who has the right to wield supreme and unchecked power over his subjects. 

How did Hobbes understand Human Nature?

Hobbes’ understanding of human nature is based on two principles:

1. Self Knowledge: Hobbes asserts that the pertinent facts about human nature may be discovered through introspection. 

2. General principles of physics: As a materialist, Hobbes urged us to first understand the matter of which we are all composed to understand human nature. The principle of conservation of motion was used by Hobbes in developing a mechanical, materialist view of human beings.

State of Nature 

Hobbes invites us to imagine a state of nature- a condition without the absolute sovereign he believes is necessary for peace. He describes this state as intolerable, with men constantly in a state of war, their lives “solitary, pore, nasty, brutish, and short.” Because the state of nature is something that needs to be avoided at all costs, Hobbes justifies his belief in a monarch’s absolutism. 

Why is the State of nature a state of war? 

Hobbes draws parallels between objects and humans through the conservation of motion, saying that since life is motion, it can never be without desire and there is no such thing as perpetual tranquillity of the mind. Humans constantly search for felicity- continual success in achieving the objects of desire. 

In the state of nature, Hobbes first lays down the principle of equality, stating that even the weakest has the strength to kill the strong through subterfuge or alliances. Next, there is scarcity, so people will be driven to compete with each other in their search for fortune. Lastly, even those who possess nothing can never be free from fear of attack because of the last reason- uncertainty. He points out that reputation of power is power, and so people will attack even those without resources to earn a reputation or as a pre-emptive strike. 

The desire for gain, safety and glory or reputation will throw man into a state of war, which Hobbes sees as the natural state of human life. He distinguishes this state of war from war, for in the state of nature, every individual faces each other as an enemy- the ‘war of man against every man.’ 

Laws of Nature

As rational beings, we can see a war of all against all is deterious to the satisfaction of our interests, and hence can recognise certain practical imperatives to secure peace. These conclusions of reason are what Hobbes calls the ‘Laws of Nature, theorems expressing what is collectively rational- ie are the best course of action for the collective rather than the individual.

Unlike the traditional concept of natural law, Hobbes's laws are not obligatory and acting against them is not seen as unjust. We must obey the Laws of nature only when others around us are known to be obeying them too, but never in a situation where others disobey or will disobey them. Thus, we should act morally only w when we can be assured that those around us are doing so too, however, this rarely occurs in the State of Nature and hence the state of nature remains a miserable, war-torn place.

The Leviathan, or The Sovereign

Because there is no natural sanction for justice, the need for a sovereign to harshly punish those who transgress these laws and create conditions in which all can securely follow the Laws of Nature. The sovereign power is created when each individual surrenders both his strength and private opinion about public issues to the sovereign. 

Political legitimacy was not derived from how a sovereign gained power- for Hobbes governments formed from conquest are just all legitimate as democratic ones. Nor was an unjust king seen as illegitimate- in Hobbes’s worldview the will of the individual was unified with the will of the sovereign since one who desires peace must logically will whatever is required for its maintenance. The only time the sovereign could be seen as illegitimate was when they failed to maintain peace and order in society.

Written by: Devi Sankhla